Echecs amoureux
Chess, the Garden of Love and the Liberal Arts - Evrard de Conty's medieval commentary on the anonymous "Echecs amoureux"
by Barbara Holländer
In the 15th century, the “Garden of Love” is a recurrent theme in profane iconography, providing a focus and place for juvenile dreams and curiosity. Its origin may be found in the literature about the “paradise on earth” , doted with trees full of flowers and fruits, sweetly smelling plants, fountains and water spouts, with the birds warbling lovely melodies. (1) The “Garden of Love” is inhabited by the children of Venus, who pass their days in eternal youth and beauty with music, dancing and games. The vile impulses and vicious affects of humans seem to be excluded from the garden of Venus, where the qualities pervade, which courtly custom expects from well-educated people: politeness, merriness, beauty, friendliness, wealth, sincerity, generosity, leisure, youthfulness - and love. (2)
1. Roman de la Rose, The Venus-Garden, surrounded by a wall showing the vices, miniature, 15th century
These 10 attributes are the names of the residents in the garden, which Guillaume de Loris conceived in his “Roman de la Rose” between 1230 and 1245, as backdrop of a young man’s allegoric dream voyage – to the besotted youth the garden appears as “ paradise on earth”, where he hopes to find his longed for “Rose”! (3) All evil seems banished from the garden’s interior to the garden wall, manifest in 10 sinful figurines painted on the wall, which represent all vices and mortal sins.
2. Les échecs amoureux: The „acteur“ repeats the judgment of Paris. Like Paris, he gives the apple to Venus. Miniature (and all following) from the ms 9197 (Maître d' Antoine Rolin), end of 15th century, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale.
Meaning: The “acteur” will follow his way to the garden of Venus (love) and neglect the possibility to live either in Juno's (active life) or in Minerva's (or Pallas Athene's) garden (contemplative life).
Ulrich Ernst has underlined the intensely descriptive character (ekphrasis) of this allegory, noting an eventual connection with byzantine novels of the 12th century. (4) The anonymous author of the epic poem “Echecs d’amour” , created around 1380 , was familiar with the Romance of the Rose, and included a shortened description of the garden and the wall as evoked in the first part of Guillaume de Loris’ romance. The protagonist/author is not dreaming about his trip – enchanted by the promises of Venus he launches himself on a youthful adventure leading to the garden of Venus , disregarding the warnings of nature and reason, and on Amor’s prompting enters into a game with the lovely lady, which he will lose.
The poem has survived in two manuscripts, one in Venice, the other in Dresden , this one having been rendered illegible through war damage – and was translated into English and added to by John Lydgate in 1430 under the title “Reason and Sensuality”. (6) But the epic had been the object of a learned interpretation earlier around 1400 by an author who in the meantime has become known by name - Evrard de Conty (1330 – 1405) was a renowned member between 1353 and his death of the medical faculty of the University of Paris, served as decane of the school during most of his tenure, as well as personal physician of the Royal Family. Evrard de Conty has left us two major works, namely “Li livre des problems de Aristote”, and the mentioned commentary “Eschez amoureux, moralises”, longtime known as “commentaries” of an anonymous author, but recently identified as work of de Conty via the research of Françoise Guichard Tesson. But in fact we are confronted with commentaries, as the author confesses right at the start:
“ ce present livre fut fait et ordené principalment a l’instance d’un autre, fait en rimes naguere, et de nouvel venu a congnoissance, qui est intitulé Des Eschez amoureux ou Des Eschez d’amours (...) (7)
A great deal of the poem remains in the dark or unclear, and only prose unfettled by the laws of poetry can illuminate the hidden meaning, according to the author, who therefore immediately gets to grips in his introduction with the pervading metaphor - the game of chess :
“ .. sy parlerons premierement de l’eschiquier et des eschez aussi qui sont de grant mistere, et puis des traiz du procés du gieu...” (8)
“ ce present livre fut fait et ordené principalment a l’instance d’un autre, fait en rimes naguere, et de nouvel venu a congnoissance, qui est intitulé Des Eschez amoureux ou Des Eschez d’amours (...) (7)
A great deal of the poem remains in the dark or unclear, and only prose unfettled by the laws of poetry can illuminate the hidden meaning, according to the author, who therefore immediately gets to grips in his introduction with the pervading metaphor - the game of chess :
“ .. sy parlerons premierement de l’eschiquier et des eschez aussi qui sont de grant mistere, et puis des traiz du procés du gieu...” (8)
Les échecs amoureux: Luna advises the „acteur“ against the intrigues of Venus, Miniature (ms Rolin as mentioned) The meaning: Luna (or Diana) stands for certain virtues as chastity or severity and detests the false beauty and the vicious life of the “Venus people”.
Evrard points out the ambivalent character of the love garden’s inhabitants, as highlighted by Amor’s arrow shots, as well as the allegoric meanings , essential to the game, of chess board and chess men and the ensuing influences – I have outlined this in detail in an essay published in the collective work “Scacchia ludus”, (9) and should not want to repeat this argument here. I also will just point out briefly Evrard’s familiarity with classical chess authors like Jacobus de Cessolis , the “Pseudo-Ovid” from the 13th century, as well as the legends on the origins of chess referred by these authors. (10)
The “Liberal Arts”
The “grant mistere” is in the centre of Evrard’s comments, as he traces the connections of chess with the 7 “liberal arts”, each of which is identified with one of the seven planets circulating (according to the geocentric concept of the middle ages) in concentric tracks around the earth. Since three more circles stand in for the stars and the heavens beyond the physical limits of the cosmos, three more disciplines are added to the classical canon of seven liberal arts, for the three additional spheres, namely (Natural) Philosophy, Metaphysics and Theology. All of them are apt to provide man with knowledge and understanding of natural science in all its forms and the powers that govern it , as well as the moral implications of an ordered world. – all in all a fairly extensive scenario!
Intriguingly Evrard deviates from established patterns in discussing the correspondence between the planetary gods and the “Artes Liberales”. He does present the Arts in the canonical succession as Trivium and Quadrivium, but the Trivium of Grammatics, Logic and Rhetorics – cornerstone of medieval learning! – are related to Saturn, Jupiter and Mars by Evrard! The Quadrivium consist of Arithmetics, Geometry, Astronomy and Music. In Evrard’s commentary, Arithmetics refers to the Cosmos, ordered by God though measure, number and weight. The planet Sol – the God Apollo’s fief – is correlated to this discipline, while Venus as representing the beauties of proportion is responsible for Geometry. (11) The God Merkur – who is also known for his gifts of prognostics, represents Astronomy/Astrology, the science of the movements of the stars and planets and their influence on mankind. And Luna stands in for Music – in medieval understanding Music is also a kind of arithmetics, depending on proportional and harmonic relations. What motivated Evrard to (re)design this plan of representations has not been the subject of research so far. The liberal arts are treated on a theoretical level at first , and then adapted and applied to the game of chess. Some of the theoretical deliberations exceed this field, others like the part about mirror images in geometry are only elaborated in the chess sections. (12)
The “Liberal Arts”
The “grant mistere” is in the centre of Evrard’s comments, as he traces the connections of chess with the 7 “liberal arts”, each of which is identified with one of the seven planets circulating (according to the geocentric concept of the middle ages) in concentric tracks around the earth. Since three more circles stand in for the stars and the heavens beyond the physical limits of the cosmos, three more disciplines are added to the classical canon of seven liberal arts, for the three additional spheres, namely (Natural) Philosophy, Metaphysics and Theology. All of them are apt to provide man with knowledge and understanding of natural science in all its forms and the powers that govern it , as well as the moral implications of an ordered world. – all in all a fairly extensive scenario!
Intriguingly Evrard deviates from established patterns in discussing the correspondence between the planetary gods and the “Artes Liberales”. He does present the Arts in the canonical succession as Trivium and Quadrivium, but the Trivium of Grammatics, Logic and Rhetorics – cornerstone of medieval learning! – are related to Saturn, Jupiter and Mars by Evrard! The Quadrivium consist of Arithmetics, Geometry, Astronomy and Music. In Evrard’s commentary, Arithmetics refers to the Cosmos, ordered by God though measure, number and weight. The planet Sol – the God Apollo’s fief – is correlated to this discipline, while Venus as representing the beauties of proportion is responsible for Geometry. (11) The God Merkur – who is also known for his gifts of prognostics, represents Astronomy/Astrology, the science of the movements of the stars and planets and their influence on mankind. And Luna stands in for Music – in medieval understanding Music is also a kind of arithmetics, depending on proportional and harmonic relations. What motivated Evrard to (re)design this plan of representations has not been the subject of research so far. The liberal arts are treated on a theoretical level at first , and then adapted and applied to the game of chess. Some of the theoretical deliberations exceed this field, others like the part about mirror images in geometry are only elaborated in the chess sections. (12)
4. Les échecs amoureux: Oiseuse (Idleness) invites the “acteur” into the garden of Venus (or Amor/Déduit).
Meaning: The “acteur” now will join the pleasures and the deceptions of a life devoted to idleness.
The Arts of the Trivium
The arts of the Trivium are resumed rather shortly by Evrard. Saturn, oldest of the planetary gods, as a coarse loner stands for Grammatics, impressed on youth through chastiment, leading to a first ordering of what one wants to express. Jupiter, identified with law and truth, introduces the aspect of truthful speech into Grammatics, which is based on distinguishing between right and wrong. The art of agreeable speech, Rethorics, is an ambivalent disciplime, as it can even pervert truth though skilful formulations. On the other hand a well –turned speech may result more successful than violent means. These three disciplines can be compared to learning the rules for a game, necessary to understand its secrets – this includes respecting the rules (droit) and refusing trickery. The square form of the chess board with its four rectangular connected sides ( “quatre lignes equalx et droitts”) clearly demonstrate this linguistic-principled quality. The four corners of the board even reinforce the symbolism as – among the many meanings associated to the number four –Evrard connects them to the four cardinal virtues, to wit Prudentia (prudence) , Justitia (Justice), Fortitudo ( force) and Temperantia (Temperance).
The Arts of the Quadrivium
The four interconnected Artes of the Quadrivium are more interesting for chess. They represent the sciences of numbers, measures, movements and harmonies – therefore the components of the divine world order, which may be actively perceived in chess as a complex object. Arithmetics appears as the first of the arts of the Quadrivium and as the encompassing science of numbers, by which all things in the world are ordered – here Evrard cites Boethius, according to whom the numbers determined all thoughts of God in the beginning , being the original models (exemplaire) of his creation. (16) Numbers regulate the course of the planets, and the passage of time through the order of year, months, days and hours and their multiple effects and influences on human lives.
Chess also is subject to the reign of numbers. We have mentioned the allegoric and moral implications of the foursquare form of the chess board. Four is the basic referential number for the 64 squares of the board , determined by the fact that 16 pieces on each side (that is 2 x 8 or 4 x 4 pieces!) need sufficient space in between the figures to develop and manoeuvre. In the initial position, 4 rows are occupied by the pieces and four more remain for executing moves.
“ A la verité “, sagt Evrard, “ le nombre de LXIV (64) entre les autres nombres est un nombre notable et de tres grant mistere.”(18)
This mysterious number “64” is not to be found in the Dictionaries of Christian iconography. But it is mentioned among the arithmetric calculations in the “Algebra” of the Bagdad sage Muhammad al-Kwharizmi or al-Choresmi, where various square equations are discussed. One of them is to be found in all Algebra manuals for the next few centuries. (19) Al-Choresmi’s x² +10x = 39 appears in the “Liber Abaci” (1202) by Leonardo Pisano, alias Fibonacci (20). Possibly Evrard is alluding to him, when he mentions the subtile knowledge of numbers far-traveled merchants like Fibonacci possess. (21) This equation and solution is known as the square supplement of a mixed-quadratic equation. Via trial and error, the solution is easily found: if x = 3, then x² plus 10 x = 9 + 30, that is 39. Solving the equation via calculation is best achieved by squait half of the multiplicator of x on both sides , viz. 5² = 25. Now the equation may be stated as x² + 10x+25 = 39 + 25. The left side can simplified to 25 (x + 5)², the right side adds up to 64 or 8 to the square. Drawing the root on both sides, the equation becomes x + 5 = 8, or x = 3. This operation therefore contains the mysterious number 64 as help for the resolution.
Evrard is forced to deal with potencys of the second and third degree, since his mysterious referential number is the first of all numbers to be both a square and a triple number! (23) He mentions the first square numbers (4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49 and 64) adding that each of them results from multiplication with itself, and therefore these numbers may be seen as the root of the squared number as well! This is also the case with the first tripled numbers (8, 27, 64), as resulting from an original number , which is also the cubical root of the tripled number. Evrard stops with the number 64 – but according to him one might proceed the same way with any basic number.
Geometry, the second art of the Quadrivium and the discipline of measuring, applies the mentioned arithmetic numbers in as far it circumscribes square surfaces and cubic bodies through square and tripled numbers. Such surfaces and bodies compound Aristotle’s demand in the treatise “De caelo” – cited by Evrard as “Du ciel et du monde” – to completely describe any given place, be it two- or threedimensional. (25) At this stage Evrard also introduces the three surfaces equal in angle and laterals (triangle, square, hexagon and the five (Platonic) bodies equal in angles, laterals and surfaces, in order to return subsequently to squares and cubes . The square of the chess board not only corresponds to Aristotle’s demand, but also satisfies rational and esthetical criteria – not too wide or too small angles, the equidistance and verticality of the sides, and the division of the whole board into equal squares.
The third art of the Quadrivium, Astronomy (26) occupies a substantial part of the Quadrium comments . First we are confronted with Astrology as the science of the movements of the celestial bodies, but the main part of this section deals with the art of prediction or prognostics – for Evrard the science of Astronomy! Our author briefly recaps the construction of the entire world through ten spheres, stressing especially the known theories for the excentric course of the planets. Evrard mentions the most recent theories by Averroes (1126 – 1198) and Alpetragius (al-Bitruji, 1150 – 1200), but seems to feel they add little or nothing to the Ptolemaic models. (27)
The major part of this chapter is devoted to prognostics, under the heading “jugements” (judgments). This deals mainly with judging the influence of the planets on the “lower world”, that is the earth. Judging is akin to predict, this is what the tract concerns itself : one has to be familiar both with the signs of the zodiac (as illustrated in the month pictures of the “Trés riches heures “ of the Duc de Berry...) as with the corresponding celestial constellations, the day houses and night houses of the planets and their points of coincidence with the zodiacal signs, the points of their highest position, relative position and conjunction with other planets, solar and lunar eclipses – the whole panoply of knowledge necessary for the observation of the skies (that is, with Evrard for Astrology!) and from here on for prediction as practiced since antiquity. Ancient lore: teh special qualities of the planetary gods are destined for their “houses”, viz. Their periods of major influence, to be correlated with the zodiacal signs. (28)
It is most interesting to note who are Evrard’s authorities, and how he has come by their tracts. His main reference is Messehalla (740 – 815), also known as Meshallah, latin form of his name Masha-allah ibn-Athari , a Persian-Jewish astronomer who lived in Basra. One of his treatises translated into Latin is “De scientia motus orbis” (“Science of the world’s movements”), supposedly translated by Gerard of Cremona (1114 – 1187) during his protracted residence in Toledo. Messehalla is cited with the remark that the eclipses of sun and moon are of exceptional importance for predictions.
Following the Messehalla quote Evrard discourses on what might be the capacities of man to understand and to know. For him it is clear that man has the wish to know (qu’il desire a savoir). But his comprehension is limited “ pour la "defaute et l’imperfection de notre entendement” (the faultiness and imperfection of our knowledge). Another authority he quotes – al-Kindi, Abu Yaqub ibn-Ishak al-Kindi (800 – 873) (28) – confirms his opinion that whoever would know all things in heaven and on earth as well as their influences and meanings, should be able to predict “everything else” ( le surplus, that means the rest!). This quote is found in al-Kindi’s “ De radiis (On rays), a Latin translation of a then widely known treatise of his :
“ Unde qui totam condicionem celestis armonie notam haberet tam preterita quam presentia quam futura cognosceret.” (31)
But such knowledge is impossible, adds Evrard, as it is reserved to God himself. Therefore the “ancients” must needs be content with what they may know about the constellations, inform themselves about the consequences and draw their conclusions accordingly. The sequence of the constellations, as far as they accessible to inquiry, can be calculated . Who knows the first constellation can know the second, the third and so on.
Evrard must have had access to al-Kindi’s tract by the same way as with Messehalla – most likely translators connected to the Toledo translator school are responsible, although caution is necessary. No original manuscript in Arabian is known to exist, which would permit a linguistic study of the vocabulary used, permitting in many cases to attribute the translation to one particular translator. (32)
Between the two quotes Evrard intersperses some thoughts which are most interesting for us – lets remember: we are concerned with prediction, and with the knowledge that makes prediction possible.
“If somebody with a complete knowledge of the game saw two people playing , both of which do their very best to make the best move, doubtlessly he will know for every move one which will be the answer and which end the game will take. Because whoever watches short games of chess, knows what should be the first move, as well as the second and the third and so on, and may even know after how many moves it will be checkmate, and so about the whole game and how it will continue...” (33)
But such perfect knowledge (« parfaite connaissance ») is not possible for humans, « ainz est tant seulement deue á Dieu » (such is only due to God) (34) – therefore even with the highest understanding of of chess it will not be possible for anybody to predict the entire course and result of the game. The comparison between chess and the universe, or simply between Prognosis (prediction or prophecy) and Providentia, is quite astonishing and most significant.
Even more astonishingly, prediction is not mentioned at all in the strict chessic part of the treatise. This is transferred onto another plane, the analysis of what happens in a game of chess, which after all – lest we forget ! – takes place under the government of Venus and her adepts ! The planet Venus is considered to be one of the planets favorable to man (35), but its mythological function is unclear and in the face of a moralizing reading, even misleading .
Last not least of the Quadrivium arts, Music plays an important part, and its discussion takes up a sizeable space in the commentary. Following Boethius, Evrard separates Music into three types : « music mondaine » (lat.musica mundana = world music), « musique humaine » (lat. Musica humana = human music) and « musique instrumentale » ( lat. musica instrumentalis = instrumental music) (37). World music consists in the harmonic sound of all parts of the cosmos, human music concerns the harmonic composition and proportion of the human body – as also evident in numbers and geometrical bodies – and « musica instrumentalis is « what we usually call music and produce with voice and instruments ».
All three types are interrelated – world music refers principally to the celestial spheres. The system of proportions of « human music » enclose all the proportions of the sounds of the monochord. (38)
It is the third variation of music which embellishes the garden paradise. An extended chapter in the commentary deals with the various aspects of music and its influence on people. Music gladdens not only the mind, but also soul and body, being naturally full of cheer. Where mind without measure is alienated from the measure of music, its influence ceases – even if it is reported that Orpheus was able to console the angry and sad through the mildness and lovely melody of his music.
Once again, we are faced with numbers and the relation of numbers, especially in relation to the game of chess. Dyapason, the octave, represents a relation of 1 : 2, dyapente (the quint), the relation of 2 : 3 , Dyatessaron (the quart) a relation of 3 : 4. These relations of numbers simultaneously mean consonance and harmony – the same proportions are found in geometrical figures of circle, square, triangle and hexagon. Personally, this musical theory is beyond my understanding, and calls for a specialist in musical theory to comment. The application of this theory to chess repeats some of the foregone conclusions : according to Evrard, the musical proportions are contained in the cube, formed from square surfaces - namely 6 surfaces with 8 corners – 3 : 4 and 6 : 8 is equivalent to the Dyatesseron, that is the quart. The eight corners compared to the 12 sides provides a proportion of 2 : 3 , the Dyapente or quint. But if we compare the proportional elements 6 with 12 or 12 with 24, we find the Dyapason, the octave. Square and cube therefore contain all numbers relevant for consonance and harmony. Among them, as Evrard takes leave to stress, the number 64 stands out especially, as it represents all numbers of the chess game, both cubique and triple numbers : 4 equal sides, 4 equal angles, 4 corners, 64 ( 8 x 8) fields of the board , 32 chess pieces, 16 each side, 8 of them in a row, all this was reason enough, says Evrard, for the inventors to design the game the way they did.
These qualities of the chess board, due to the cosmic and thereby unchangeable relations of numbers, geometrics and music are reinforced via the symbolic attributes and meanings of the numbers 2 and 4 , the right angle etc. – we will refrain from going into this.
The game of chess is therefore – as stated in Evrard’s prologue – « the most beautiful and the most wonderful game, and the game most comparable to love among all we presently use » (40)
The arts of the Trivium are resumed rather shortly by Evrard. Saturn, oldest of the planetary gods, as a coarse loner stands for Grammatics, impressed on youth through chastiment, leading to a first ordering of what one wants to express. Jupiter, identified with law and truth, introduces the aspect of truthful speech into Grammatics, which is based on distinguishing between right and wrong. The art of agreeable speech, Rethorics, is an ambivalent disciplime, as it can even pervert truth though skilful formulations. On the other hand a well –turned speech may result more successful than violent means. These three disciplines can be compared to learning the rules for a game, necessary to understand its secrets – this includes respecting the rules (droit) and refusing trickery. The square form of the chess board with its four rectangular connected sides ( “quatre lignes equalx et droitts”) clearly demonstrate this linguistic-principled quality. The four corners of the board even reinforce the symbolism as – among the many meanings associated to the number four –Evrard connects them to the four cardinal virtues, to wit Prudentia (prudence) , Justitia (Justice), Fortitudo ( force) and Temperantia (Temperance).
The Arts of the Quadrivium
The four interconnected Artes of the Quadrivium are more interesting for chess. They represent the sciences of numbers, measures, movements and harmonies – therefore the components of the divine world order, which may be actively perceived in chess as a complex object. Arithmetics appears as the first of the arts of the Quadrivium and as the encompassing science of numbers, by which all things in the world are ordered – here Evrard cites Boethius, according to whom the numbers determined all thoughts of God in the beginning , being the original models (exemplaire) of his creation. (16) Numbers regulate the course of the planets, and the passage of time through the order of year, months, days and hours and their multiple effects and influences on human lives.
Chess also is subject to the reign of numbers. We have mentioned the allegoric and moral implications of the foursquare form of the chess board. Four is the basic referential number for the 64 squares of the board , determined by the fact that 16 pieces on each side (that is 2 x 8 or 4 x 4 pieces!) need sufficient space in between the figures to develop and manoeuvre. In the initial position, 4 rows are occupied by the pieces and four more remain for executing moves.
“ A la verité “, sagt Evrard, “ le nombre de LXIV (64) entre les autres nombres est un nombre notable et de tres grant mistere.”(18)
This mysterious number “64” is not to be found in the Dictionaries of Christian iconography. But it is mentioned among the arithmetric calculations in the “Algebra” of the Bagdad sage Muhammad al-Kwharizmi or al-Choresmi, where various square equations are discussed. One of them is to be found in all Algebra manuals for the next few centuries. (19) Al-Choresmi’s x² +10x = 39 appears in the “Liber Abaci” (1202) by Leonardo Pisano, alias Fibonacci (20). Possibly Evrard is alluding to him, when he mentions the subtile knowledge of numbers far-traveled merchants like Fibonacci possess. (21) This equation and solution is known as the square supplement of a mixed-quadratic equation. Via trial and error, the solution is easily found: if x = 3, then x² plus 10 x = 9 + 30, that is 39. Solving the equation via calculation is best achieved by squait half of the multiplicator of x on both sides , viz. 5² = 25. Now the equation may be stated as x² + 10x+25 = 39 + 25. The left side can simplified to 25 (x + 5)², the right side adds up to 64 or 8 to the square. Drawing the root on both sides, the equation becomes x + 5 = 8, or x = 3. This operation therefore contains the mysterious number 64 as help for the resolution.
Evrard is forced to deal with potencys of the second and third degree, since his mysterious referential number is the first of all numbers to be both a square and a triple number! (23) He mentions the first square numbers (4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49 and 64) adding that each of them results from multiplication with itself, and therefore these numbers may be seen as the root of the squared number as well! This is also the case with the first tripled numbers (8, 27, 64), as resulting from an original number , which is also the cubical root of the tripled number. Evrard stops with the number 64 – but according to him one might proceed the same way with any basic number.
Geometry, the second art of the Quadrivium and the discipline of measuring, applies the mentioned arithmetic numbers in as far it circumscribes square surfaces and cubic bodies through square and tripled numbers. Such surfaces and bodies compound Aristotle’s demand in the treatise “De caelo” – cited by Evrard as “Du ciel et du monde” – to completely describe any given place, be it two- or threedimensional. (25) At this stage Evrard also introduces the three surfaces equal in angle and laterals (triangle, square, hexagon and the five (Platonic) bodies equal in angles, laterals and surfaces, in order to return subsequently to squares and cubes . The square of the chess board not only corresponds to Aristotle’s demand, but also satisfies rational and esthetical criteria – not too wide or too small angles, the equidistance and verticality of the sides, and the division of the whole board into equal squares.
The third art of the Quadrivium, Astronomy (26) occupies a substantial part of the Quadrium comments . First we are confronted with Astrology as the science of the movements of the celestial bodies, but the main part of this section deals with the art of prediction or prognostics – for Evrard the science of Astronomy! Our author briefly recaps the construction of the entire world through ten spheres, stressing especially the known theories for the excentric course of the planets. Evrard mentions the most recent theories by Averroes (1126 – 1198) and Alpetragius (al-Bitruji, 1150 – 1200), but seems to feel they add little or nothing to the Ptolemaic models. (27)
The major part of this chapter is devoted to prognostics, under the heading “jugements” (judgments). This deals mainly with judging the influence of the planets on the “lower world”, that is the earth. Judging is akin to predict, this is what the tract concerns itself : one has to be familiar both with the signs of the zodiac (as illustrated in the month pictures of the “Trés riches heures “ of the Duc de Berry...) as with the corresponding celestial constellations, the day houses and night houses of the planets and their points of coincidence with the zodiacal signs, the points of their highest position, relative position and conjunction with other planets, solar and lunar eclipses – the whole panoply of knowledge necessary for the observation of the skies (that is, with Evrard for Astrology!) and from here on for prediction as practiced since antiquity. Ancient lore: teh special qualities of the planetary gods are destined for their “houses”, viz. Their periods of major influence, to be correlated with the zodiacal signs. (28)
It is most interesting to note who are Evrard’s authorities, and how he has come by their tracts. His main reference is Messehalla (740 – 815), also known as Meshallah, latin form of his name Masha-allah ibn-Athari , a Persian-Jewish astronomer who lived in Basra. One of his treatises translated into Latin is “De scientia motus orbis” (“Science of the world’s movements”), supposedly translated by Gerard of Cremona (1114 – 1187) during his protracted residence in Toledo. Messehalla is cited with the remark that the eclipses of sun and moon are of exceptional importance for predictions.
Following the Messehalla quote Evrard discourses on what might be the capacities of man to understand and to know. For him it is clear that man has the wish to know (qu’il desire a savoir). But his comprehension is limited “ pour la "defaute et l’imperfection de notre entendement” (the faultiness and imperfection of our knowledge). Another authority he quotes – al-Kindi, Abu Yaqub ibn-Ishak al-Kindi (800 – 873) (28) – confirms his opinion that whoever would know all things in heaven and on earth as well as their influences and meanings, should be able to predict “everything else” ( le surplus, that means the rest!). This quote is found in al-Kindi’s “ De radiis (On rays), a Latin translation of a then widely known treatise of his :
“ Unde qui totam condicionem celestis armonie notam haberet tam preterita quam presentia quam futura cognosceret.” (31)
But such knowledge is impossible, adds Evrard, as it is reserved to God himself. Therefore the “ancients” must needs be content with what they may know about the constellations, inform themselves about the consequences and draw their conclusions accordingly. The sequence of the constellations, as far as they accessible to inquiry, can be calculated . Who knows the first constellation can know the second, the third and so on.
Evrard must have had access to al-Kindi’s tract by the same way as with Messehalla – most likely translators connected to the Toledo translator school are responsible, although caution is necessary. No original manuscript in Arabian is known to exist, which would permit a linguistic study of the vocabulary used, permitting in many cases to attribute the translation to one particular translator. (32)
Between the two quotes Evrard intersperses some thoughts which are most interesting for us – lets remember: we are concerned with prediction, and with the knowledge that makes prediction possible.
“If somebody with a complete knowledge of the game saw two people playing , both of which do their very best to make the best move, doubtlessly he will know for every move one which will be the answer and which end the game will take. Because whoever watches short games of chess, knows what should be the first move, as well as the second and the third and so on, and may even know after how many moves it will be checkmate, and so about the whole game and how it will continue...” (33)
But such perfect knowledge (« parfaite connaissance ») is not possible for humans, « ainz est tant seulement deue á Dieu » (such is only due to God) (34) – therefore even with the highest understanding of of chess it will not be possible for anybody to predict the entire course and result of the game. The comparison between chess and the universe, or simply between Prognosis (prediction or prophecy) and Providentia, is quite astonishing and most significant.
Even more astonishingly, prediction is not mentioned at all in the strict chessic part of the treatise. This is transferred onto another plane, the analysis of what happens in a game of chess, which after all – lest we forget ! – takes place under the government of Venus and her adepts ! The planet Venus is considered to be one of the planets favorable to man (35), but its mythological function is unclear and in the face of a moralizing reading, even misleading .
Last not least of the Quadrivium arts, Music plays an important part, and its discussion takes up a sizeable space in the commentary. Following Boethius, Evrard separates Music into three types : « music mondaine » (lat.musica mundana = world music), « musique humaine » (lat. Musica humana = human music) and « musique instrumentale » ( lat. musica instrumentalis = instrumental music) (37). World music consists in the harmonic sound of all parts of the cosmos, human music concerns the harmonic composition and proportion of the human body – as also evident in numbers and geometrical bodies – and « musica instrumentalis is « what we usually call music and produce with voice and instruments ».
All three types are interrelated – world music refers principally to the celestial spheres. The system of proportions of « human music » enclose all the proportions of the sounds of the monochord. (38)
It is the third variation of music which embellishes the garden paradise. An extended chapter in the commentary deals with the various aspects of music and its influence on people. Music gladdens not only the mind, but also soul and body, being naturally full of cheer. Where mind without measure is alienated from the measure of music, its influence ceases – even if it is reported that Orpheus was able to console the angry and sad through the mildness and lovely melody of his music.
Once again, we are faced with numbers and the relation of numbers, especially in relation to the game of chess. Dyapason, the octave, represents a relation of 1 : 2, dyapente (the quint), the relation of 2 : 3 , Dyatessaron (the quart) a relation of 3 : 4. These relations of numbers simultaneously mean consonance and harmony – the same proportions are found in geometrical figures of circle, square, triangle and hexagon. Personally, this musical theory is beyond my understanding, and calls for a specialist in musical theory to comment. The application of this theory to chess repeats some of the foregone conclusions : according to Evrard, the musical proportions are contained in the cube, formed from square surfaces - namely 6 surfaces with 8 corners – 3 : 4 and 6 : 8 is equivalent to the Dyatesseron, that is the quart. The eight corners compared to the 12 sides provides a proportion of 2 : 3 , the Dyapente or quint. But if we compare the proportional elements 6 with 12 or 12 with 24, we find the Dyapason, the octave. Square and cube therefore contain all numbers relevant for consonance and harmony. Among them, as Evrard takes leave to stress, the number 64 stands out especially, as it represents all numbers of the chess game, both cubique and triple numbers : 4 equal sides, 4 equal angles, 4 corners, 64 ( 8 x 8) fields of the board , 32 chess pieces, 16 each side, 8 of them in a row, all this was reason enough, says Evrard, for the inventors to design the game the way they did.
These qualities of the chess board, due to the cosmic and thereby unchangeable relations of numbers, geometrics and music are reinforced via the symbolic attributes and meanings of the numbers 2 and 4 , the right angle etc. – we will refrain from going into this.
The game of chess is therefore – as stated in Evrard’s prologue – « the most beautiful and the most wonderful game, and the game most comparable to love among all we presently use » (40)
Les échecs amoureux: The chessboard. Miniature
Meaning: The board, the names of the pieces on the board and the pieces depicted in the niches over the board represent in an abstract form the garden of Venus and at the same time the game between the “acteur” and a woman which in the end he will loose.
Notes
1) Notorious is the attempt by Alexander the Great to conquer Paradise – comp. esp.: Hans Holländer, Alexander, Hybris und Curiositas, in: Willi Erzgräber (ed.), Kontinuität und Transformation der Antike im Mittelalter, Acts of the Congress , Freiburg Symposion of the Association of Medieval Scholars, Sigmaringen 1989, S. 65-79, esp.pp. 72ff.; the symbolism of the garden has been systemized by Ulrich Ernst, Die Virtuellen Gärten in der mittelalterlichen Literatur (=Virtual Gardens in medieval literature) Anschauungsmodelle und symbolische Projektionen, in: Elisabeth Vavra (ed.), Imaginäre Räume, Sektion B des internationalen Kongresses „Virtuelle Räume. Raumwahrnehmung und Raumvorstellung im Mittelalter, Vienna 2007. On the Roman de la Rose see pp. 181-186.
2) a well-known example appears in the so-called “Hausbuch" (=homely book) of the late 15th century. On the Venus page (folio 15 recto) Venus is shown riding across a landscape peopled by gamesters, musicians, dancers and bathers; compare Christoph Graf zu Waldburg-Wolfegg, Venus und Mars. Das mittelalterliche Hausbuch aus der Sammlung der Fürsten zu Waldburg-Wolfegg, München, New York 1997, p. 36-37. An accompanying poem identifies the inhabitants of the garden expressly as “Venus children” – putting them in to the cotext of plane children, frequently depicted in the 14th and 15th century
3)Daniel Poirion (Hrsg.), Guillaume de Lorris et Jean de Meun, Le Roman de la Rose, Paris 1974.
4) Ulrich Ernst, „Nouveau Roman“ im Mittelalter? in: Das Mittelalter 13/1 (2008): Zur Bildlichkeit mittelalterlicher Texte, S. 114. Ernst refers to the wall pictures in the novel Hysmine and Hysminias of Eustathios Makrembolites (12. Jh., introduced, translated and explained by von Karl Pepelits, Stuttgart 1989, p. 38-53, Text S. 90 ff., 2.-4. Buch), whose themes (four cardinal virtues, Eros as sovereign and 12 illustrations of months) can only relate indirectly to chess, through the dominating role of Eros – but the representation of the garden does bear comparing and relating to chess. The mystical interpretation of the story and places, as suggested by the editor, in which the profane “Garden of Love” is transmuted into “Heavenly Jersualem”, cannot be applied to the profane allegory of chess.
5) Christine Kraft, Die Liebesgarten-Allegorie der «Échecs Amoureux», Kritische Ausgabe und Kommentar , Frankfurt a.M., Bern, Las Vegas 1977, p. 25.
6) see Ernst Sieper, Les Échecs amoureux. Eine altfranzösische Nachahmung des Rosenromans und ihre englische Übertragung, Weimar 1898; Ernst Sieper (Hrsg.), Lydgate’s Reson and sensuallyte / ed. From the Fairfax ms. 16 (Bodleian Library, Oxford) and the additional ms. 29,729 (Brit.Mus.), London 1901.
7) Françoise Guichard-Tesson, Roy, Bruno, Le Livre des Eschez Amoureux Moralisés, Éd. Critique, Montreal 1993, in the following notes referred to as EA (first edition) , pp.2 (1r): „This book has been conceived on the base of another one in rhymed form, recently rediscovered and whose title is “On the chess of love”
8) EA, p. 604 (222r): “at first we will talk about the chess board and the chess pieces, which are a great mystery, and then about the rules of the games...”
9) All the same, let me point out Evrard’s idea of the garden. For him, this is a metaphor of the world (monde), in which nature reigns, and man is the king. Various path led through this garden to special places, which man may chose freely according to his preferences, in order to lead a contemplative live under the sign of wisdom and religion or alternately an active live as social actor. These places are identified as the gardens of Pallas Athene and Juno, enclosed n the major garden of the world. While the frequenters of these gardens need to strive and work, the garden of Venus incites to idleness and sensual pleasures. A visitor therefore exchanges the way of reason (raison) for a transitory paradise apparent. The stroller might take heed - history teaches a similar garden on the mountain ambition led astray Alexander the Great, who aspired to dominate the entire world!
10) see Hans Holländer, Ulrich Schädler, Scacchia Ludus, Studien zur Geschichte des Schachspiels I, Aachen 2007, p. 254-256.
11) Her beauty , in the story of the judgement of Paris, is the seductive charm of physical appearance – but in the many-layered interpretatory background of the commentary hides the indication of the beauty of geometrical figures from the second Arte of the Quadrium. On a cosmic plane, there is no ambivalence....
12) EA, p. 106-108 on mirrors, whose essence is commented on in the chess part only. Mainly about the truthfulness and ability to deceive of the diverse mirrors, EA, pp 608, where the meaning of the relations of numbers is explained both arithmetically and geometrically
13) EA, p. 101-103.
14) EA, p. 605.
15) EA, p. 103-105.
16) EA, p. 104. comp.. Kurt Flasch, Das philosophische Denken im Mittelalter, Stuttgart 1986, S. 46. Boethius uses the same word “exemplar” !
17) EA, p. 607 ff.
18) EA, p. 608: „Die Zahl 64 ist unter allen anderen Zahlen eine bemerkenswerte und geheimnisvolle Zahl.“
19) comp.:Dirk J. Struik, Abriss der Geschichte der Mathematik, Braunschweig 41967, p. 76.
20) Struik (Fn. 18), p. 91.
21) EA, p. 104.
22) for Fibonacci see: Heinz Lüneburg, Leonardi Pisani Liber Abbaci oder Lesevergnügen eines Mathematikers, Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zürich 1993, p. 296 mit der modernen Notierung.
23) EA, p. 608f.
24) EA, p. 105-108
25) EA, p. 610.
26) EA, p. 108-135. these two sections have been published and partly commented before in a critical edtion based on the manuscripts of the National Library in Paris : Reginald Hyatte et Maryse Ponchard-Hyatte, L’ Harmonie des sphères, Encyclopédie d’astronomie et de musique extraite du commentaire sur Les Echecs amoureux (XVe s.) attribué à Evrard de Conty, New York, Berne, Frankfurt am Main 1985.
27) EA, p. 110.
28) comp.fe. Franz Boll, Carl Bezold, Wilhelm Gundel, Sternglaube und Sterndeutung, Die Geschichte und das Wesen der Astrologie, Darmstadt 51966, S. 58: Die Methoden der Sterndeutung.
29) Messehala p. 114: “Et pour ce dit Messehala que l’eclipse du soleil ou de la lune ne peut estre sanz grant signification.” Other authorities of Evrard for prediciton and horoscopes are Sahl ibn Bisra al-Israili (ca 786-845?), whom he calls Zael (EA p. 121) and his translators, one of whom supposedly identified as Hermann of Carinthia (comp. Fn. 32) Ali Ibn Ridwan (=Haly in Evrard, EA S. 124), who observed a supernova in 1006 , and Albumasar (around 787-886, EA p. 126), among whose translators once more Hermann of Carinthia is named .
30) Al Kindi EA, p. 115. The latin translation of De Radiis, attributed to al-Kindi, has been edited by M.-T. D’Alverny und F. Hudry: D’Alverny/Hudry, Al-Kindi, De Radiis, in: Archives d’histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen âge: ouvrage public avec le concours du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 41 (1974), S. 139-267. Zitiert als De Radiis. See also Peter Adamson, Al-Kindi, Oxford 2007, p. 188-206 (On Rays); Charles Burnett, Keiji Yamamoto, Michio Yano, Al-Quabïşï (Alcabitius), The Introduction to Astrology, Warburg Institute Studies, London, Turin 2004, on Al-Kindi p. 390-393: Iudicia Alkindi Astrologi, trans. Robert of Ketton.
31) De Radiis (Fn. 28), p. 223: «Whoever knoweth the entire condtion of celestial harmony, will understand all things past, present and future.”
32) De Radiis, Introduction p. 169-173. Zur Interpretation und zur Frage der Authentizität s. Adamson (Fn. 30), p. 188-206; Burnett (Fn. 30, p. 386-389) in an annex quotes another text named “Fourty chapters” in arab language, attributed to al-Kindi, which is also provided in a latin translation (pp 390 – 393). The translation acc. to Burnett is by Robert of Ketton (1110? – 1160?) , and dedicated to Robert of Carinthia (1100 – 1155). These two sutdied together at the University of Paris, and undertook a voyage to the Near East together. Both, therefore actively translated arab treatises, Robert must have spent some time in Spain. It is likely that the work of these two translators was not forgotten at the University in Paris in the following 150 years, and their work was known and read.
33) “qui aroit parfaite congnoissance de cest gieu et il vist deux personnes jouer, dont chascun a son tour feist le meilleur trait qui simplement seroit lors possible a fere, il n’est pas doubte, veu le premier trait que l’un d’eulx feroit, il saroit bien quel trait l’autre devroit faire et quel trait le premier traians feroit aussi après; et ainsy saroit il tous les traiz qu’ils feroient l’un après l’autre et par consequant il saroit a quel fin le gieu devroit venir. Car tout aussi que on voit es petites parties des eschés que, qui saroit bien l’art, il saroit quel devroit estre le premier trait et le second aussi et le tiers et le quart et ainsy tous les autres, se plus y aroit, et par consequant il saroit quel le mat devroit estre et a quant traiz, tout aussi feroit il de tout le gieu entier, qui en porroit bien savoir le procés. » , EA, pp. 115
34) EA, p. 115: „complete knowledge is only due to God.....“
35) EA, p. 125.
36) EA, p. 135-208.
37) Boethius: „Principio igitur de musica disserenti illud interim dicendum videtur quot musicae genera ab eius studiosiis comprehensa esse noverimus. Sunt autem tria. Et prima quidem mundana est, secunda vero humana, tertia, quae in quibusdam constituta est instrumentis [...].“ Vgl.: Boèce, Traité de la musique. Introduction, traduction et notes par Christian Meyer, Turnhout 2004, S. 31-32. EA p. 158: „Les anciens mettoient trois manieres de musique, c’est assavoir la musique mondaine et la musique humaine, et la tierce est l’instrumentale musique.“ Vgl. auch Hermann Pfrogner, Musik, Geschichte ihrer Deutung, Freiburg, München 1954, p. 107-109. On Boethius see also Anja Heilmann, Boethius’ Musiktheorie und das Quadrivium. Eine Einführung in den neuplatonischen Hintergrund von »De institutione musica«, Göttingen 2007. On the "tirpartite" music esp. p 245-259.
38) At this stage, Evrard repeatedly refers to Boethius – a precise study of his formulations is necessary to determine which other musical theorists he might have consulted. Also, what he says after pp. 166 (EA) on the importance of rhyme and meter as forms of musica instrumentalis, needs to be looked at in order to get to his fonts.
39) EA, p. 613.
40) EA, p 614
41) prologue , op.cit. , “le plus beau jeu et le plus merveilleux, et le plus proprement a amour comparable qui soit quant a present en notre usage”
