Chess sets from Dieppe – chess sets from Geislingen
Barbara Holländer
1. Dieppe
Dieppe, mentioned for the first time in 1030, is situated on the river Arques, flowing between the cliffs, the rocky coast of Normandy, into the North Sea (the Channel). Since the Middle-Ages, the town and its port were renowned as a starting point for explorations into foreign countries and for her master sculptors and turners of ivory – two characteristics obviously depending on each other. A wide pebble beach stretches before the old city. The fortress on the cliff, part of former fortifications and museum today – the Château-Musée – with a rich collection of ivory objects, dominates the town and the coast. The river and the ports separate this part of Dieppe from the “Pollet”, the quarter of skippers and fishermen with their own traditions, shown in small ivory sculptures (les “Polletais”) popular with tourists who, from first decades of the 19th century on began to visit Dieppe's seaside as a health resort, all the more, when starting in 1848, the town could be reached by railway from the station St. Lazare in Paris.
Dieppe, mentioned for the first time in 1030, is situated on the river Arques, flowing between the cliffs, the rocky coast of Normandy, into the North Sea (the Channel). Since the Middle-Ages, the town and its port were renowned as a starting point for explorations into foreign countries and for her master sculptors and turners of ivory – two characteristics obviously depending on each other. A wide pebble beach stretches before the old city. The fortress on the cliff, part of former fortifications and museum today – the Château-Musée – with a rich collection of ivory objects, dominates the town and the coast. The river and the ports separate this part of Dieppe from the “Pollet”, the quarter of skippers and fishermen with their own traditions, shown in small ivory sculptures (les “Polletais”) popular with tourists who, from first decades of the 19th century on began to visit Dieppe's seaside as a health resort, all the more, when starting in 1848, the town could be reached by railway from the station St. Lazare in Paris.
2. “Tabletiers” and “ivoiriers”
In 1826 Pierre-Jacques Feret specified the role of Dieppe:
"The turners and sculptors in ivory formed a numerous class of workers. The inhabitants of Dieppe insist they were the first to work with ivory in France - their pretensions seem to be well founded. So far, they have hardly any competitors in this field of industry. wherever somebody works with ivory, even in Paris - the craftsman turns out to be - from Dieppe. "
(1)
In 1826 Pierre-Jacques Feret specified the role of Dieppe:
"The turners and sculptors in ivory formed a numerous class of workers. The inhabitants of Dieppe insist they were the first to work with ivory in France - their pretensions seem to be well founded. So far, they have hardly any competitors in this field of industry. wherever somebody works with ivory, even in Paris - the craftsman turns out to be - from Dieppe. "
(1)
reevocation of an ivory-carver's workshop in the Museum at Dieppe
However that may have been, we are told by the Encyclopédie Méthodique, Arts et Métiers of 1791, that in Paris (and very probably in Dieppe too) the tablet makers (= tabletiers) were associated with the comb makers and sellers, the turners, and the image carvers. (2) The “tabletiers” originally were meant to make small tablets with a wax surface to write on, later on also boards for certain games such as trictrac (=backgammon), tables or chess and the corresponding (turned) pieces. The denomination image carvers permitted “tabletiers” to make crucifixes and other small images of wood or ivory. We should keep this in mind, when we turn to the Dieppe chess pieces.
Tabletier - copper print by Nicolas de Larmessin II, 1695, orig. in the Biliotheque Nationale de France (BNF)
Dieppe's role as the center of ivory working was undisputed for a long period, due to the extensive ivory trade of the French colony in Senegal with France and, since Richelieu's foundation of the Compagnie Normande in 1626, especially with the traders from Rouen and Dieppe. The Conservateur en Chef (chief conservator) of the important collection of more than 2000 objects in the Château-Musées of Dieppe, Pierre Ickowicz, explained, that from the 16th century on sailors of Dieppe again resumed the “ivory route” to Africa. They brought back such an enormous quantity of tusks that the Dieppe “tabletiers” more or less left off bone and wood and turned to ivory. For Ickowicz, the 18th century represents the century of the finest works, but the 19th century became a culminating point of “ivoires de luxe”, statues and crucifixes, which can be admired in the treasuries of churches and in many royal collections or those of the rich.
It is evident, that during this period, the ivory trade knew a “boom”. Photos give an impression of the opulent display in the renowned shops. (3) At the same time though, rivals came from far away. In the report of his journey to China, Jules Itier describes what he found in the warehouses of Canton in 1842:
" ..carved and turned chess games(..) paper knives, fans, baskets, combs etc. These objects, one has to admit, are more remarquable for their original shapes and the cheap price than for their finish and fineness. On the most recent evidence, our tabletiers in Dieppe, thanks to superior tooling, have left the chinese far behind - they do not dispose of any of the ferfected means with which mechanics daily is enriching our workshops." (4)
It is evident, that during this period, the ivory trade knew a “boom”. Photos give an impression of the opulent display in the renowned shops. (3) At the same time though, rivals came from far away. In the report of his journey to China, Jules Itier describes what he found in the warehouses of Canton in 1842:
" ..carved and turned chess games(..) paper knives, fans, baskets, combs etc. These objects, one has to admit, are more remarquable for their original shapes and the cheap price than for their finish and fineness. On the most recent evidence, our tabletiers in Dieppe, thanks to superior tooling, have left the chinese far behind - they do not dispose of any of the ferfected means with which mechanics daily is enriching our workshops." (4)
The French visitor obviously was prejudiced – he shared the European opinions of the time about the Chinese backwardness in technology and science (chess collectors, though, admire today the subtlety of the export chess sets made in China!) (5), but what interests us here, is his comparison of the displayed objects with those made in Dieppe. Though of minor quality, as Itier meant, the Chinese products seemed to become a serious danger. A corresponding statement dates from 1846, when the ivory sculptors of Dieppe, among them the influential Louis Raymond Henri Brunel (1818-1882), the head of a vast enterprise (6), sent a letter to their Chamber of Commerce, protesting against the free entrance of Chinese “tabletterie” in France which would ruin the French trade. (7)
Several major pieces of various subjects (ship models/maquette de navire, statuettes of antique type, crucifixes) are attributed to Brunel, very few are signed, some are attributed to his “atelier”.
Thus, a set of chess pieces dated in the first half of the 19th century is said to be a product of his workshop. (8) The set has come to the museum as a donation from a private collection in 1899. The pieces show, except for the knights, sculptured busts on turned bases. As it seems, the busts are of ivory, while the bases are of bone. Has there been a certain division of labor in the workshop between the tailleur d'image and the tourneur? (9)
Several major pieces of various subjects (ship models/maquette de navire, statuettes of antique type, crucifixes) are attributed to Brunel, very few are signed, some are attributed to his “atelier”.
Thus, a set of chess pieces dated in the first half of the 19th century is said to be a product of his workshop. (8) The set has come to the museum as a donation from a private collection in 1899. The pieces show, except for the knights, sculptured busts on turned bases. As it seems, the busts are of ivory, while the bases are of bone. Has there been a certain division of labor in the workshop between the tailleur d'image and the tourneur? (9)
Thus, an incomplete set of chess pieces dated in the first half of the 19th century is said to be a product of his workshop. (8) The set has come to the museum as a donation from a private collection in 1899. The pieces show, except for the knights, sculptured busts on turned bases. As it seems, the busts are of ivory, while the bases are of bone. Has there been a certain division of labor in the workshop between the carver and the turner? (9)
White / Red (base colored red)
King: 8,1 cm? (turban, sash)
King: 8 cm (European, indented crown, toga, fur collar)
Queen: 6,2 cm (turban, robe décolletée)
Queen: 6,2 cm (European, indented crown, robe décolletée)
2 x: Bishop/Fou: 5,8 and 5,7 cm (Turban, Toga)
2x Bishop/Fou: 5,7 and 5,1 cm (Turban, one with Toga)
2x Knight: bust of horse, 9 and 8 cm
2x Knight: half horse with rider: 7 and 6,9 cm (helmets, swords)
8 Pawns: about 5,7 cm, one only 3,7 cm (helmets, sort of toga, high collars
8 pawns: between 5,1 and 5,7 cm, one 3,2 cm
same form as the whites
The pieces form a set, but there seem to have been some losses which were replaced by other pieces of the same provenance, though not of the same size (white king and two pawns). This may also be right for the knights (two busts of white horses and two red riders). As shown above, the set opposes, not quite consistently, European to Non-European (African) figures. A drawing of several busts in his sketchbook shows, that Brunel also must have had on display the very popular confrontation of historical persons (Napoleon, Henri IV). Moreover Brunel also designed an “abstract” set of turned pieces with only the knight as a horse's bust, which we would perhaps not necessarily identify as from Dieppe. (10)
Henri IV . the "good king" - early 19th C set, from : "Schachaprtie durch Zeiten und Welten", Kat. Hamburg 2005, P.248
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historic anomaly - Henri IV. vz. Napoleon the "usurpator" as kings....from "Schachpartie durch Zeiten und Welten, Kat. hamburg 2005, p. 249
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an early 18th C. Dieppe set in the rare combination of natural and green - from "Schachpartie durch Zeiten und Welten", Kat. Hamburg 2005, p. 152
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More in the style of Brunel's drawing of the busts, though more homogeneous, are the Dieppe sets shown in the Hamburg catalogue (11) and in the presentation of CCI-France (12). The dimensions of the single pieces may differ slightly, and the “fous” (bishops) may not always show the fools' characteristics, but the two parties correspond in their form and are only modified by certain indications (contrasting Europeans to black people or “Indians” etc.). The difference of “white and black side” either shows – as in the Museum set – by the bases or by the different coloring of the pieces (white/red, white/green, white/black). Frequently the knight is a “rider on a half horse”, but a horse's head on a turned baluster also occurs. Can we conclude from these features or from details of the dresses or the headgear as to the exact time of the fabrication of the pieces? We would like to date as early as possible the sets showing figures of the 18th century, but these models could be from the 19th century as well (see Brunel's design). Some of the “Royals” show a certain likeness to existing persons (Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI).
In a set opposing them to figures of the African colonies (Senegal) we may see an actual allusion and try to date this set before the French revolution. (13) That the era of Napoleon, however, meant a real turning point, seems evident. Constellations such as Henri IV against Napoleon imply a certain political meaning: Sets with the "good king" Henri IV. opposed to the "usurpator" Napoleon Bonaparte only begin to be produced in the first half of the 19th century. (14) Another question is that of the quality of the pieces: The more they respond to our sense of “finesse”, the more we tend to place them in the 18th century. But this sense can be deceived. In the workshops may have been more or less gifted sculptors – which shows in their works. Price lists and descriptions would show the differences between simpler and more sophisticated products, between masters and apprentices. As documented in the “Cahier no 4”, prizes differed considerably between high quality objects for the nobility and those meant for average customers.
various Dieppe fools (= bishops!)
Though attributions are difficult, the Cahiers de l'ivoire count quite a lot of names of “ivory carvers” (there seem to have been about 100 ateliers in the first half of the 19th century), known for their ships models or for their religious statues or for the carved medals. It is very probable that not only Brunel or his atelier produced chess sets, but further investigations of sources would be necessary to confirm this supposition.
In Dieppe, one last ivoirière, Annick Colette, continues the work of several generations of Colettes. There is an interesting video on Youtube showing how she works a Polletais (typical popular) figurine with her various instruments, and there are also comments on the problems concerning the use of ivory after the prohibition of any ivory commerce.
In Dieppe, one last ivoirière, Annick Colette, continues the work of several generations of Colettes. There is an interesting video on Youtube showing how she works a Polletais (typical popular) figurine with her various instruments, and there are also comments on the problems concerning the use of ivory after the prohibition of any ivory commerce.
3. Geislingen an der Steige
Geislingen, first documented in 1108, is situated deep in the valley of the river Fils between the mountains of the Schwäbische Alb (Swabian Alb), a region formed in Jurassic times with a sea level of about 400 meters. In the 13th century, the noble family of Helffenstein founded the town of Geislingen to better control the old trading route between the Rhine and the Mediterranean regions which had to surmount a steep ascent before reaching the heights of the Alb area. A quite prominent wanderer, Friedrich Nicolai from Berlin, tells us his impressions, when, in 1781, he descended into the valley:
“Between mountains with leafy trees alternating with naked protruding rocks we saw in their depths meadows with lots of grazing cows. On the Geislinger Stiege [sic] (Geislingen steeple) the path turns down steeply.” (15)
Geislingen, first documented in 1108, is situated deep in the valley of the river Fils between the mountains of the Schwäbische Alb (Swabian Alb), a region formed in Jurassic times with a sea level of about 400 meters. In the 13th century, the noble family of Helffenstein founded the town of Geislingen to better control the old trading route between the Rhine and the Mediterranean regions which had to surmount a steep ascent before reaching the heights of the Alb area. A quite prominent wanderer, Friedrich Nicolai from Berlin, tells us his impressions, when, in 1781, he descended into the valley:
“Between mountains with leafy trees alternating with naked protruding rocks we saw in their depths meadows with lots of grazing cows. On the Geislinger Stiege [sic] (Geislingen steeple) the path turns down steeply.” (15)
4. “Dreher”, “Drechsler” and “Elfenbeinschnitzer”
When Nicolai was down in the town, he noted what was interesting: The fame of Geislingen as a town of bone and ivory turners and sculptors, who sold their products either in Geislingen, or in Nuremberg via correspondents. Formerly, he states, they had extended their trading activities as far as Amsterdam, Great Britain and America. He visits one of the most recognized masters named Michael Knoll, member of an old family of turners and ivory sculptors and at the time mayor of the town. In 1781 the trade, which goes back to the Middle-Ages – the books of the guild state the middle of the 15th century - counted 36 masters working on ivory, bone and wood. (16) Nicolai is fascinated by the number of bones (30 000 pieces in 1780) coming from Munich, Lindau or Straßburg and then degreased and bleached in Geislingen. And he adds, together with their prizes, a precious list of objects to sell, signed by Michael Knoll which gives an impression of their variety. There are all sorts of cases, including writing cases, buttons, pipes, furniture for doll's houses, flutes, hairpins, crucifixes, rosaries and so on, and last but not least chess sets:
“1 Schachspiel von Holz” (wooden chess set) for 15 or 24 kr (Kreuzer)
“1 Schachspiel von Bein” (chess set, bone) for 30 kr to 12 fl (Florins or Guilders) or more (17)
An information of the Vienna market office may give an approximative idea of how much that would have been: In about 1750 1 Guilder meant 60 Kreuzers (=pennies). For these 60 kr you could get 6 kilos of beef, for 1 kr. you got 100 gr. The question is how long you had to work for these sums. You can find that a bricklayer got 6 Groschen (=18 Kreuzer) for a 10 hours work. So to pay 1 Gulden meant the work of about three and a half days. (Meaning that a wooden set cost about the equivalent of a bricklayers daily wage, and bone or ivory sets went from the equivalent of about 2 until to 42 workings days..., ed.)
When Nicolai was down in the town, he noted what was interesting: The fame of Geislingen as a town of bone and ivory turners and sculptors, who sold their products either in Geislingen, or in Nuremberg via correspondents. Formerly, he states, they had extended their trading activities as far as Amsterdam, Great Britain and America. He visits one of the most recognized masters named Michael Knoll, member of an old family of turners and ivory sculptors and at the time mayor of the town. In 1781 the trade, which goes back to the Middle-Ages – the books of the guild state the middle of the 15th century - counted 36 masters working on ivory, bone and wood. (16) Nicolai is fascinated by the number of bones (30 000 pieces in 1780) coming from Munich, Lindau or Straßburg and then degreased and bleached in Geislingen. And he adds, together with their prizes, a precious list of objects to sell, signed by Michael Knoll which gives an impression of their variety. There are all sorts of cases, including writing cases, buttons, pipes, furniture for doll's houses, flutes, hairpins, crucifixes, rosaries and so on, and last but not least chess sets:
“1 Schachspiel von Holz” (wooden chess set) for 15 or 24 kr (Kreuzer)
“1 Schachspiel von Bein” (chess set, bone) for 30 kr to 12 fl (Florins or Guilders) or more (17)
An information of the Vienna market office may give an approximative idea of how much that would have been: In about 1750 1 Guilder meant 60 Kreuzers (=pennies). For these 60 kr you could get 6 kilos of beef, for 1 kr. you got 100 gr. The question is how long you had to work for these sums. You can find that a bricklayer got 6 Groschen (=18 Kreuzer) for a 10 hours work. So to pay 1 Gulden meant the work of about three and a half days. (Meaning that a wooden set cost about the equivalent of a bricklayers daily wage, and bone or ivory sets went from the equivalent of about 2 until to 42 workings days..., ed.)
Many Geislingen chess sets show the same characteristics: The main pieces – and very often the pawns – are half-figures on turned bases. The bases end in a sort of hanging rosette. Kings and queens bear hoop crowns ("Spangenkronen"), that are not used for the Dieppe pieces. The “Läufer” (engl. Bishop, fr. Fool) is an officer slightly turned in his hips. The “Springer” (knight) very often is a half horse with a tail enrolled as of a sea horse. The sets are either white and colored black or brown, or slightly painted in red and blue, while the bases are left white on one side and colored on the other. Geislingen pieces were, for quite a long time, thought to be of Dieppe origin. That this is not the case, is known since about 20 years, when researches were made concerning some sets of high quality made by the Knoll family, in particular by Johann Friedrich Knoll (1780-1844) who went to Vienna to present a set to the Emperor – with no success, because the Emperor did not see fit to pay the prize of 1400 Gulden. Allegations about immigrants from Dieppe during the Huguenot's flight from France therefore must be rejected. (18) The number of turners' workshops in Geislingen diminished in the course of the 19th century, there are noted 22 master turners in 1842. The last turner/carver died in 1981 - his workshop and that of a fellow turner are preserved in the Museum im Alten Bau, a former timbered granary from about 1445.
In the second half of the 19th century Geislingen lost most of her workshops and developed in another direction. The “Steige” – the ascent from the town's sea level of 400 meters to more than 500 meters was mastered by the installation of a railway, which is known as the first mountain crossing by rails in Europe. The chief constructor was one Michael Knoll (1805-1852) of the well known family. On the other hand, metal work got the better of bone turning. His brother-in-law was the founder of the later Württembergische Metallwarenfabrik, in short WMF, known for its products like cutlery, pans and cooking pots of high quality. The WMF ujntil today is the dominating industry in the city, providing jobs for the inhabitants and funds for the city coffers.
Comparing the evolution of the two cities with their once dominating “industry”, we can observe similar and differing features between the seashore town and the town in the mountains without finding direct connections. Or do we only lack information? There is, curiously enough, one however, provided by the already cited Friedrich Nicolai, who observed an interesting scene:
“To my astonishment, I saw two French hawkers from Dieppe, who wanted to buy crucifixes, chapels and little altars for pious France. But the objects displayed seemed too expensive for them.” (19)
Would this be a hint, that Geislingen wares (and chess sets) were exported to and sold in Dieppe? Another information proves that the “ivoiriers” and bone turners of Geislingen were well aware of the Dieppe production. In 1848 they wrote a petition to the King (of Württemberg, ed.)) to help them with a considerable sum. They intended to modernize their fabrication and to look for attractive models. Dieppe seemed a focus for these intentions which were, however, without success. (20)
(c) Barbara Holländer 2016
Comparing the evolution of the two cities with their once dominating “industry”, we can observe similar and differing features between the seashore town and the town in the mountains without finding direct connections. Or do we only lack information? There is, curiously enough, one however, provided by the already cited Friedrich Nicolai, who observed an interesting scene:
“To my astonishment, I saw two French hawkers from Dieppe, who wanted to buy crucifixes, chapels and little altars for pious France. But the objects displayed seemed too expensive for them.” (19)
Would this be a hint, that Geislingen wares (and chess sets) were exported to and sold in Dieppe? Another information proves that the “ivoiriers” and bone turners of Geislingen were well aware of the Dieppe production. In 1848 they wrote a petition to the King (of Württemberg, ed.)) to help them with a considerable sum. They intended to modernize their fabrication and to look for attractive models. Dieppe seemed a focus for these intentions which were, however, without success. (20)
(c) Barbara Holländer 2016
Notes
This essay was first published in the program brochure for the 17th CCI World Convention, Paris May 2 - 6 - this is a slgihtly altered and enlarged version of the brochure text.
1) Pierre-Jacques Feret, Notices sur Dieppe, Arques et quelques monuments circonvoisins, Dieppe/Paris 1824, p. 62: Les tourneurs, les sculpteurs en ivoire formaient une nombreuse classe d'artistes. Les Dieppois prétendent être les premiers qui ont travaillé l' ivoire en France; leurs prétentions paroissent fondées. Jusqu' à présent, ils n'ont point de rivaux dans ce genre d' industrie. Partout où l' on travaille l' ivoire, même à Paris, on trouve dans l' artiste un Dieppois.
2) Encyclopédie Méthodique, Arts et Métiers, Tome 8 (Tabletier), Paris, chez Pankoucke, 1791.
3) See: Pierre Ickowicz, Les cahiers de l' ivoire, 1-5; the collections of ivory objects in the Château-Musée de Dieppe are, up to now, documented in 5 beautiful booklets: 1. Les cadrans solaires de Dieppe (2004), 2. Les maquettes de navires (2005), 3. Louis Raymond Brunel (2007), 4. La vie du Christ (2008), 5. Les médaillons en ivoire découpé (2009). Photos of the shops in: La vie du Christ, p. 10., also here
4) Jules Itier, Journal d' un voyage en Chine en 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, Paris 1848, Vol. II, p. 12-13. „chess sets [en ivoire], turned and sculpted […], paper knives, combs etc. But it must be said that these objects are more remarkable for their original forms and their low prizes than for the subtlety of their work. From this point of view, our turners of Dieppe, due to their superior tools, surpass by far the Chinese who do not dispose of the perfect means, by which the mechanical arts enrich our workshops.“
5) See: Barbara Holländer, Chinesische Schachfiguren 18.-20. Jahrhundert – Chinese Chess Sets 18th to 19th century, Dresden 2012.
6) Cahiers de l'ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 7-9.
7) Cahiers de l'ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 93 (Complément de Céline Dumont).
8) Cahiers de l'ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 64; also: www.culture.gouv.fr/public/mistral/joconde_fr
9)This question is treated: in Les cahiers de l'ivoire no 4 for the production of “christs“. See p. 11-12.
10) Cahiers de l' ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 64. A second drawing demonstrates the construction of an „abstract“ set. Its knights are similar to those of the white side (bust of horse).
11) See: Hans und Barbara Holländer, Schachpartie durch Zeiten und Welten, Ausst.-Kat. Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg 2005, Heidelberg 2005.
12) See Patrice Plain in: http://www.ccifrance.com/41.html
13) See Kat. Hamburg (as in fn. 7), p. 151/152.
14) See Kat. Hamburg (as in fn. 7), p. 248.
15) See Friedrich Nicolai, Beschreibung einer Reise durch Deutschland und die Schweiz im Jahre 1781, 9. Band, Berlin und Stettin 1795. 3. Buch,VII. Abschnitt, S. 153-158.
16) My own family counts, from about 1600 on, a series of documented turners originating in Geislingen, but wandering to other places.
17) For further information on Geislingen wares (also with Nicolai's prize-list) and turners' names see: Peter W. Hartmann, Kunstlexikon, St. Gilgen/Salzburg 1996 (also included in the online dictionnary of art BeyArs Wissen, in German).
18) Information from December 11, 2015, by the Director of the Geislingen Archive, Mr. Hartmut Gruber, himself a researcher on the history of the turners in Geislingen: „There are no documents of any Huguenot immigration“. See also Hartmut Gruber, Eine Stadt im Wandel, 1810-1938,: Die württembergische Oberamtsstadt Geislingen, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Geislingen, Bd 15, 1998.
19) Nicolai (as in fn. 15), p. 156.
20) See Hartmann (as in fn. 17).
This essay was first published in the program brochure for the 17th CCI World Convention, Paris May 2 - 6 - this is a slgihtly altered and enlarged version of the brochure text.
1) Pierre-Jacques Feret, Notices sur Dieppe, Arques et quelques monuments circonvoisins, Dieppe/Paris 1824, p. 62: Les tourneurs, les sculpteurs en ivoire formaient une nombreuse classe d'artistes. Les Dieppois prétendent être les premiers qui ont travaillé l' ivoire en France; leurs prétentions paroissent fondées. Jusqu' à présent, ils n'ont point de rivaux dans ce genre d' industrie. Partout où l' on travaille l' ivoire, même à Paris, on trouve dans l' artiste un Dieppois.
2) Encyclopédie Méthodique, Arts et Métiers, Tome 8 (Tabletier), Paris, chez Pankoucke, 1791.
3) See: Pierre Ickowicz, Les cahiers de l' ivoire, 1-5; the collections of ivory objects in the Château-Musée de Dieppe are, up to now, documented in 5 beautiful booklets: 1. Les cadrans solaires de Dieppe (2004), 2. Les maquettes de navires (2005), 3. Louis Raymond Brunel (2007), 4. La vie du Christ (2008), 5. Les médaillons en ivoire découpé (2009). Photos of the shops in: La vie du Christ, p. 10., also here
4) Jules Itier, Journal d' un voyage en Chine en 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, Paris 1848, Vol. II, p. 12-13. „chess sets [en ivoire], turned and sculpted […], paper knives, combs etc. But it must be said that these objects are more remarkable for their original forms and their low prizes than for the subtlety of their work. From this point of view, our turners of Dieppe, due to their superior tools, surpass by far the Chinese who do not dispose of the perfect means, by which the mechanical arts enrich our workshops.“
5) See: Barbara Holländer, Chinesische Schachfiguren 18.-20. Jahrhundert – Chinese Chess Sets 18th to 19th century, Dresden 2012.
6) Cahiers de l'ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 7-9.
7) Cahiers de l'ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 93 (Complément de Céline Dumont).
8) Cahiers de l'ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 64; also: www.culture.gouv.fr/public/mistral/joconde_fr
9)This question is treated: in Les cahiers de l'ivoire no 4 for the production of “christs“. See p. 11-12.
10) Cahiers de l' ivoire no 3 (as in fn. 3), p. 64. A second drawing demonstrates the construction of an „abstract“ set. Its knights are similar to those of the white side (bust of horse).
11) See: Hans und Barbara Holländer, Schachpartie durch Zeiten und Welten, Ausst.-Kat. Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg 2005, Heidelberg 2005.
12) See Patrice Plain in: http://www.ccifrance.com/41.html
13) See Kat. Hamburg (as in fn. 7), p. 151/152.
14) See Kat. Hamburg (as in fn. 7), p. 248.
15) See Friedrich Nicolai, Beschreibung einer Reise durch Deutschland und die Schweiz im Jahre 1781, 9. Band, Berlin und Stettin 1795. 3. Buch,VII. Abschnitt, S. 153-158.
16) My own family counts, from about 1600 on, a series of documented turners originating in Geislingen, but wandering to other places.
17) For further information on Geislingen wares (also with Nicolai's prize-list) and turners' names see: Peter W. Hartmann, Kunstlexikon, St. Gilgen/Salzburg 1996 (also included in the online dictionnary of art BeyArs Wissen, in German).
18) Information from December 11, 2015, by the Director of the Geislingen Archive, Mr. Hartmut Gruber, himself a researcher on the history of the turners in Geislingen: „There are no documents of any Huguenot immigration“. See also Hartmut Gruber, Eine Stadt im Wandel, 1810-1938,: Die württembergische Oberamtsstadt Geislingen, Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Geislingen, Bd 15, 1998.
19) Nicolai (as in fn. 15), p. 156.
20) See Hartmann (as in fn. 17).
